The outlaw Clay Allison had survived gunfights, feuds, and the bloody violence of the Colfax County range war, yet it was not a bullet that ended him. In 1887, he died in a wagon accident on the Texas plains, crushed and broken in a manner that seemed almost absurd for a man of his reputation. The story of his death, like so much of life in the old west, was a reminder that the frontier did not discriminate between the wicked and the weary. The same land that tested the courage of pioneers with hostile terrain, harsh weather, and the constant threat of disease could just as easily claim the life of its most notorious outlaw.
Between the 1840s and 1860s, an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 people moved westward, a migration of staggering scale undertaken without paved roads, reliable transportation, or any guarantee of safety. Pioneers navigated rough wagon trails and treacherous terrain, their journeys complicated by occasional hostilities with Native American tribes and encounters with unfamiliar wildlife. Massive herds of bison, numbering in the millions, disrupted and intimidated exhausted travelers, while rattlesnakes across the Plains and deserts delivered bites that, combined with inadequate medical care, frequently proved fatal. The weather itself was a formidable enemy, harsh and unpredictable, differing greatly from the milder conditions of the East Coast.
Even the simple act of traveling to the general store became a significant undertaking for those living on isolated homesteads, their journeys made harder by the temperamental nature of oxen, horses, and mules. Wagon wheels broke down with alarming regularity, while the wagons themselves suffered damage from relentless wind, sleet, snow, and heavy use. At river crossings, the risk of drowning was ever-present, particularly for the many pioneers who could not swim. The challenges of daily life on the frontier were compounded by a fundamental lack of resources, none more basic than water.
Throughout the 19th century, the scarcity of wells and water pumps in the Great Plains and Mountain West made obtaining clean water a significant challenge. Indoor plumbing was a luxury confined to major cities on the East Coast, and even urban residents had limited access to modern conveniences compared to today’s standards. Without running water and with limited access to clean streams, pioneers lived in conditions of persistent dirtiness. Men who spent long hours working in the fields returned home covered in grime, and the lack of accessible baths meant that unpleasant odors only worsened over time.
Some knowledgeable doctors made efforts to address hygiene issues, but they were outnumbered by charlatans spreading alarming and often misleading information about cleanliness and diseases. For some, a visit to town for a costly consultation was promoted as a remedy for these supposed problems. Women faced even more significant challenges with personal hygiene. The numerous layers of petticoats and undergarments made bathroom visits cumbersome, and pantaloons were often designed without crotch openings, forcing women to manage awkwardly while using the toilet.
Proper washing and aftercare were nearly impossible. Sanitary pads were not invented until 1888, and tampons did not become available until several decades later. In the absence of these products, women on the Great Plains resorted to using grass, cotton, rabbit fur, and sheep’s wool, while some used rags in their undergarments to stay clean. Although douching was sometimes employed, historians’ observations suggest that menstrual hygiene in the old west was marked by significant discomfort and hardship.
In the early years of the old west, the majority of settlers were men. As America expanded into the Great Plains, many single men ventured westward in search of wealth, fame, and adventure, often leaving their families behind. Consequently, women and children were relatively rare in the frontier regions, particularly during the initial phase of settlement. Among those who did venture west, a notable group were prostitutes.
Brothels became common fixtures in frontier towns, providing a form of companionship that, while not comparable to marriage, met the immediate needs of the settlers. Women working in these establishments, often referred to as sporting women, painted ladies, or soil doves, found a niche in the burgeoning industry. Unfortunately, the harsh realities of the profession left many unable to escape their circumstances, and their prospects for retirement were bleak. Estimating the prevalence of venereal diseases in the old west is challenging, but historians suggest that around half of the women working in these establishments were afflicted with such illnesses.
These diseases were frequently transmitted to their clients, and as men moved from one town to another, the cycle of infection continued to spread. Despite the efforts of women to protect themselves, the understanding of sexual health at the time was limited. Treatment methods were rudimentary and often dangerous. Remedies containing mercury, carbolic acid, mercuric cyanide, and boric acid were commonly used, but these harsh substances sometimes caused more harm than good.
The true impact of venereal diseases on frontier communities is not fully known, but historical records provide some insight. Death certificates from the period sometimes listed “cancer of the brain,” a discreet term referring to the final severe stages of syphilis, indicating the hidden toll of these diseases. Dental care on the frontier fared little better. By the mid-19th century, toothpaste was becoming somewhat common, and dentists had also become more prevalent.
Many pioneers understood the importance of oral hygiene, so some form of dental care was accessible, albeit basic. By the 1870s, prominent Western leaders were advocating for better dental practices, and newspaper editorials encouraged homesteaders to include oral care in their health routines. However, dental care was still far from advanced standards. The quality of dental services on the frontier was highly variable, infections and complications from procedures were frequent, and the use of anesthesia was rare.
Although anesthesia had been introduced on the East Coast as early as 1846, transporting it to the frontier was challenging, and many dentists in western states could not obtain it. Even when available, its efficacy was inconsistent. In some cases, opium was used as a substitute, but the dosage often varied significantly, leading to either ineffective relief or dangerous outcomes. A notorious story involves Clay Allison, who in 1886 allegedly sought revenge on a Wyoming territory dentist for a botched extraction.
According to the tale, the dentist removed the wrong tooth, prompting Allison to retaliate by forcibly extracting one of the dentist’s molars himself. While this story may be embellished, it aligns with Allison’s violent reputation. After his death, his tombstone bore the inscription, “He never killed a man that did not need killing,” suggesting that even his approach to revenge may have been in keeping with his fierce demeanor. In areas with inadequate hygiene and unreliable clean water, pests and parasites thrived.
Lice were particularly troublesome in pioneer homes. The lack of indoor plumbing or bathtubs meant that washing hair was infrequent, although some pioneers tried to manage their hair by brushing it regularly. This was only a partial solution. Shampoo was not introduced until just before 1900 and was initially developed in Germany.
Its availability in the United States was limited and slow, with mail orders taking considerable time until domestic production increased in the 20th century. Pioneers had to rely on alternative methods, such as using eggs, vinegar, and other household items to clean their hair. Newspapers made efforts to share useful information, such as a 1900 report from a West Coast publication suggesting that glycerin could make girls’ hair shinier. However, the effectiveness and potential side effects of such remedies were not well documented.
In the absence of effective hair care products, pioneer families frequently endured severe lice infestations. The treatments available were harsh and often ineffective. Some doctors recommended using rancid water from boiled potatoes to wash the hair, while others suggested applying a mixture of vinegar and lard. When these homemade remedies failed, pioneers had to painstakingly remove lice by hand using specialized combs.
This laborious process was a particularly unpleasant aspect of daily life on the frontier. For early pioneers, personal hygiene in the outhouse was far from ideal. Toilet paper as we know it was not available in the old west, nor was it widely used anywhere in the country at that time. Toilet tissue was first developed in New York City during the 1850s, initially marketed as medicated paper.
However, it was sold in costly, inefficient sheets, making it impractical to ship in large quantities to settlers moving westward. It wasn’t until 1890 that toilet paper began to be mass-produced in rolls, and a year later, the toilet paper holder was invented. By the early 1900s, advancements included softer and higher quality tissues, which were significant improvements. Unfortunately, these developments arrived too late to benefit most pioneers, as the major westward expansion had largely concluded by the 1890s.
For many pioneer families, the Farmers’ Almanac became an unconventional but practical solution. Since its inception in 1792, readers had been drilling holes in the almanac, which they would then hang from a nail in their outhouse. Those who could read used it for bathroom reading and would tear off a page for cleaning up afterward. By the early 20th century, the publishers of the almanac began pre-drilling holes in their publications for this specific use.
For those without access to the almanac, other materials were used in its place. Pioneers often resorted to soft plants, scraps of paper, soft corn cobs, or even reusable rags. Considering the hygiene conditions of the time, it’s unsettling to imagine the appearance and odor of those recycled rags. Indoor plumbing would have significantly eased domestic life for pioneer families, but it was a luxury they could only anticipate towards the end of the era of westward expansion.
In the meantime, outhouses were the primary solution for sanitation needs. Although families had chamber pots for nighttime use, small lidded porcelain bowls kept beside the bed for emergencies, having a waste container so close to one’s sleeping area was far from ideal. Outhouses were a common feature at every home and settlement across the Great Plains. These basic wooden structures typically had two seats, a larger one for adults and a smaller one for children.
Many outhouses also had a small crescent-shaped opening in the door to provide light and ventilation. This design element, often seen as a crescent moon, was a practical adaptation for the limited conditions. Due to their inexpensive and functional design, outhouses were ubiquitous throughout the wild west. They were found behind nearly every saloon, hotel, and public building.
Some outhouses, due to high usage, were even built with two stories, while others had multiple seats to accommodate many users simultaneously. The resulting odors from these makeshift facilities were likely quite strong. Moreover, outhouses often served purposes beyond sanitation. They sometimes became private retreats where individuals could engage in discreet activities such as reading or drinking.
The most heavily used outhouses could turn into unmanageable waste pits, and some even became hiding spots for illicit items. Local sheriffs frequently reported finding hidden weapons and other contraband within these structures. Today, the principles of germ science are deeply ingrained in our daily routines. We routinely wash our hands, disinfect surfaces, and clean dishes and utensils, practices that now seem basic.
However, in the 19th century, germ theory was just emerging. While scientists on the East Coast, particularly from Ivy League institutions, were making pioneering discoveries about disease transmission, these insights were not yet widespread. During this period, household cleaning products were not available. Lysol, for instance, was only introduced in 1889 and did not gain widespread popularity until later.
By that time, many pioneers had already established their homes in the frontier regions. Knowledge of germs and disinfectants was scarce, and supplies were minimal. Families often shared the same cup and ate from the same plate, while saloon patrons commonly used a single bar towel to clean their mouths. Homemade lye soaps, while somewhat effective in the absence of commercial cleaners, were harsh and produced inconsistent results.
However, progress was on the horizon. The publication of the Happy Healthy Home Guide in 1887 marked a significant step forward. This guide, which spread throughout the country, presented germ theory and information about viruses in an accessible manner. For many in the west, this guide was a crucial development, providing much-needed knowledge that began to improve domestic hygiene and home health care practices.
Throughout the prairie, settlers hastily constructed sod houses as they moved westward, resulting in structures that were rudimentary and far from secure. Built directly from the earth, these homes were poorly insulated and often left unsealed, making them susceptible to various environmental challenges and infestations. Most of these dwellings featured dirt floors and frequently leaked roofs, leading to a persistent problem with pests and wildlife. Families often found themselves sharing their homes with insects and occasionally snakes.
To combat the relentless dust, which was so pervasive that mothers poured greasy dishwater on the floors to suppress it, they inadvertently created an environment that attracted even more insects. This made the living conditions even more uncomfortable and unsanitary. Roof leaks were a common issue, exacerbated by the sod’s inability to withstand harsh weather conditions, which frequently led to crumbling walls and soaked interiors. Homesteaders often reported tales of leaking ceilings, damp bed linens, and soiled clothing.
Without running water in most frontier settlements, maintaining hygiene was exceptionally challenging. Pioneers had to transport water from nearby streams and creeks in large buckets, boiling it to kill any germs they were aware of. They then used harsh homemade lye soaps for cleaning, which were tough on the skin and often ineffective at eliminating bacteria. This created a cycle of unsanitary conditions that would be shocking to today’s standards of cleanliness.
The frontier demanded extraordinary ingenuity and determination from those who sought to tame it. Pioneering families traversing the Plains had to contend with basic hygiene challenges, their resources and knowledge far less advanced than what we have now. Although information on domestic practices became more accessible by the late 19th century, the dissemination of this knowledge was gradual and uneven. Before these advancements, domestic routines and hygiene were vastly different from contemporary practices.
The old west earned its reputation for being untamed and unpredictable, a reflection of the bravery and resilience needed to navigate its vast expanse. Pioneers faced constant hazards, and the harsh landscape of the Prairie offered little solace. With limited access to medical care, the challenges of survival were compounded by cultural and linguistic barriers with Native American tribes, adding to the uncertainties of life in this rugged terrain.
Few aspects of frontier life came easily, and for those who lived through it, the daily struggle for cleanliness, health, and survival was as demanding as any gunfight or cattle drive.
